Different functions of physical effort: A scoping review of the value of physical effort in physical activity and sports
Johanna Stähler 
Maik Bieleke
Wanja Wolff
Julia Schüler
Psychologists have long been intrigued by effort and its underlying motivations. Effort serves multiple functions: a costly instrument, a reward, and adding value to outcomes. Although physical effort is a defining concept of sports, work on conceptualizing its functions in this context is lacking. Here, we aim to fill this gap by examining the existing sports and physical activity literature, especially focusing on how the value-generating functions have been addressed in previous research. To ensure comprehensive coverage, a machine-learning approach (ASReview) was employed for efficient paper screening, resulting in a total of N = 20 relevant articles from an initial pool of 28,079 identified articles. Several of these articles provided evidence that physical effort can be inherently rewarding and add value to an outcome. Moreover, several research focal points could be identified: the generalization of effort’s value across domains, developmental aspects, neural correlates of effort valuation, and different measurement approaches used to assess the value of physical effort. There is still a dearth of research investigating the value of physical effort in sports and exercise. A coherent theoretical framework, such as the Expected Value of Control theory and standardized measurement methods, may aid future research in understanding effort’s different functions.